Alpha-Beta Pruning Alpha-beta pruning is a modified version of the minimax algorithm. It is an optimization technique for the minimax algorithm. As we have seen in the minimax search algorithm that the number of game states it has to examine are exponential in depth of the tree. Since we cannot eliminate the exponent, but we … Continue reading Alpha-Beta Pruning
First-Order Logic in Artificial intelligence In the topic of Propositional logic, we have seen that how to represent statements using propositional logic. But unfortunately, in propositional logic, we can only represent the facts, which are either true or false. PL is not sufficient to represent the complex sentences or natural language statements. The propositional logic … Continue reading First-Order Logic in Artificial intelligence
Prolog In Artificial Intelligence Introduction : Prolog is a logic programming language. It has important role in artificial intelligence. Unlike many other programming languages, Prolog is intended primarily as a declarative programming language. In prolog, logic is expressed as relations (called as Facts and Rules). Core heart of prolog lies at the logic being applied. Formulation or Computation is … Continue reading Prolog In Artificial Intelligence
What is Unification? Unification is a process of making two different logical atomic expressions identical by finding a substitution. Unification depends on the substitution process. It takes two literals as input and makes them identical using substitution. Let Ψ1 and Ψ2 be two atomic sentences and 휎 be a unifier such that, Ψ1휎 = Ψ2휎, then it can be expressed as UNIFY(Ψ1, … Continue reading What is Unification?
Forward Chaining in AI In artificial intelligence, forward and backward chaining is one of the important topics, but before understanding forward and backward chaining lets first understand that from where these two terms came. Inference engine: The inference engine is the component of the intelligent system in artificial intelligence, which applies logical rules to the … Continue reading Forward Chaining in AI
Backward Chaining: Backward-chaining is also known as a backward deduction or backward reasoning method when using an inference engine. A backward chaining algorithm is a form of reasoning, which starts with the goal and works backward, chaining through rules to find known facts that support the goal. Properties of backward chaining: It is known as … Continue reading Backward Chaining:
Resolution Resolution is a theorem proving technique that proceeds by building refutation proofs, i.e., proofs by contradictions. It was invented by a Mathematician John Alan Robinson in the year 1965. Resolution is used, if there are various statements are given, and we need to prove a conclusion of those statements. Unification is a key concept … Continue reading Resolution
What is knowledge representation? Humans are best at understanding, reasoning, and interpreting knowledge. Human knows things, which is knowledge and as per their knowledge they perform various actions in the real world. But how machines do all these things comes under knowledge representation and reasoning. Hence we can describe Knowledge representation as following: o Knowledge representation and … Continue reading What is knowledge representation?
Ontological Engineering ontological engineering – representing abstract concepts (e.g. actions, time, physical objects, and beliefsupper ontology – a general framework of concepts have to handle exceptions and uncertainty 2 major characteristics of general-purpose ontologies that distinguish them from special-purpose ontologies: § a general purpose ontology can be applicable in any special purpose domain (with the addition of domain-specific … Continue reading Ontological Engineering
Categories and Objects categories are an important aspect of general knowledge reasoning strict kind categories – an object is a triangle iff it is a polygon with 3 sidesnatural kind categories – have no clear cut definition there are 2 choices for representing categories in first-order logic: § predicates (e.g. basketball(X)) § objects (e.g. reify the category as an object, basketballs. and thus allows us to … Continue reading categories are an important aspect of general knowledge reasoning
Actions, Situations, and Events reasoning about results of actions is central to a knowledge-based agent. propositional logic gave us an example of the wumpus world that describes how actions affect the environment. the problem with propositional logic is the need to have different copies of the action description for each time the action might be … Continue reading Actions, Situations, and Events
Mental Events and Mental Objects The agents we have constructed so far have beliefs and can deduce new beliefs. Yet none of them has any knowledge about beliefs or about deduction. Knowledge about one’s own knowledge and reasoning processes is useful for controlling inference propositional attitudes – the attitude an agent has towards mental objects (e.g. Believes, Knows, Wants, Intends, … Continue reading Mental Events and Mental Objects
Reasoning Systems for Categories 2 families of systems designed for organizing and reasoning with categories: § semantic networks – utilizing graphs and algorithms for inferring properties of an object on the basis of its category membership § description logics – provides a formal language for constructing and combining category definitions and algorithms for deciding subset and superset relationships between … Continue reading Reasoning Systems for Categories
Reasoning With Default Information 2 examples that violate the monotonicity property of logic (and thus are non-monotonic): § semantic networks we saw that property inherited by all members of a category in a semantic network could be overridden by more specific information for a subcategory § in closed-world assumption: § if a proposition α is not mentioned in KB then: KB ⊨ ¬α § but when α is mentioned then: KB ∧ α … Continue reading Reasoning With Default Information
Truth Maintenance Systems inferences drawn by the knowledge representation system will have only default status, rather than being absolutely certain. Inevitably, some of these inferred “facts” will turn out to be wrong and will have the be retracted in the face of new information. this process is called belief revision The Difficulty of Belief Revisioning suppose … Continue reading Truth Maintenance Systems
What is agent communication? Communication is necessary in order to allow collaboration, negotiation, cooperation, etc… between independent entities. For this purpose, it requires a well-defined, agreed and commonly understood semantics. Therefore, there cannot be any interoperability without standards.Agent communication is based on message passing, where agents communicate by formulating and sending individual messages to each … Continue reading What is agent communication?
Negotiation Bargaining Bargaining is a simple form of the distributive negotiation process that is both competitive and positional. Bargaining doesn’t seek to create value but instead focuses on negotiators claiming value.Bargaining very often revolves around a single issue—usually price. Bargaining predominates in one-time negotiations, e.g. buying or selling a car or house when you don’t … Continue reading Negotiation Bargaining
Argumentation among Agents What is Argumentation? Arguing with Others “A verbal and social activity of reason aimed at increasing (or decreasing) the acceptability of a controversial standpoint for the listener or reader, by putting forward a constellation of propositions (i.e. arguments) intended to justify (or refute) the standpoint before a rational judge” [van Eemeren et … Continue reading Argumentation among Agents
language modeling Language modeling (LM) is the use of various statistical and probabilistic techniques to determine the probability of a given sequence of words occurring in a sentence. Language models analyze bodies of text data to provide a basis for their word predictions. They are used in natural language processing (NLP) applications, particularly ones that … Continue reading language modeling
Information extraction information extraction (IE), information retrieval (IR) is the task of automatically extracting structured information from unstructured and/or semi-structured machine-readable documents and other electronically represented sources. In most of the cases this activity concerns processing human language texts by means of natural language processing (NLP). Recent activities in multimedia document processing like automatic annotation and content extraction out of images/audio/video/documents could be seen … Continue reading Information extraction
Natural Language Processing Natural Language Processing (NLP) refers to AI method of communicating with an intelligent systems using a natural language such as English. Processing of Natural Language is required when you want an intelligent system like robot to perform as per your instructions, when you want to hear decision from a dialogue based clinical … Continue reading Natural Language Processing
What is Machine Translation Machine translation (MT) is automated translation. It is the process by which computer software is used to translate a text from one natural language (such as English) to another (such as Spanish). To process any translation, human or automated, the meaning of a text in the original (source) language must be … Continue reading What is Machine Translation
Rule-Based MT vs. Statistical MT Rule-based MT provides good out-of-domain quality and is by nature predictable. Dictionary-based customization guarantees improved quality and compliance with corporate terminology. But translation results may lack the fluency readers expect. In terms of investment, the customization cycle needed to reach the quality threshold can be long and costly. The performance … Continue reading Rule-Based MT vs. Statistical MT
Speech recognition and AI When artificial intelligence (AI) evolved, it touched almost all facets of life and surroundings. Speech recognition is one such technology that is empowered by AI to add convenience to its users. This new technology has the power to convert voice messages to text. And it also has the ability to recognize … Continue reading Speech recognition and AI
Robotics What are Robots? Robots are the artificial agents acting in real world environment. Objective Robots are aimed at manipulating the objects by perceiving, picking, moving, modifying the physical properties of object, destroying it, or to have an effect thereby freeing manpower from doing repetitive functions without getting bored, distracted, or exhausted. What is Robotics? … Continue reading Robotics
What is perception in AI? · Perception is a process to interpret, acquire, select and then organize the sensory information that is captured from the real world.For example: Human beings have sensory receptors such as touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing. So, the information received from these receptors is transmitted to human brain to organize the received … Continue reading What is perception in AI?
What is planning in AI? · The planning in Artificial Intelligence is about the decision making tasks performed by the robots or computer programs to achieve a specific goal. · The execution of planning is about choosing a sequence of actions with a high likelihood to complete the specific task. Blocks-World planning problem · The blocks-world problem is … Continue reading What is planning in AI?
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